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GNDU Question Paper-2022

M.A 1

Semester

Paper-II, Opt.(a):Society and Culture in India Upto A.D.1200

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 80

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section.

The Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Define the word 'Jati'. Discuss in detail development and significance of Jati upto 1200

A.D.

2. Critically examine the importance of the institution of Marriage Describe different kinds

of marriages developed in Ancient India.

SECTION-B

3. What was Vedic religion. Discuss in detail the main principles of Vedic religion.

4. Give an account of the origin and sectarian development of the Jainism.

SECTION-C

5. Critically examine the origin and development of Saivism in Early India.

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6. Explain the salient doctrines of Bhakti movement in India. Discuss the contribution of

early proponents for the development of Bhakti movement.

SECTION-D

7. Analyse the growth of art of sculpture of India with special reference to the Gandhara

and Mathura School of Art.

8. Describe in detail about the development of education in Ancient India.

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GNDU Answer Paper-2022

M.A 1

Semester

Paper-II, Opt.(a):Polity Economy of India (A.D.1200-1526)

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 80

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section.

The Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Define the word 'Jati'. Discuss in detail development and significance of Jati upto 1200

A.D.

Ans: The word ‘Jati’ refers to a traditional social group or caste in India. It is an essential part

of the Indian social structure, often associated with occupations, lifestyle, and religious

practices. The development of Jati is a complex process that evolved over centuries, with its

roots traceable to early Indian society. To understand the concept of Jati and its significance

up to 1200 A.D., it is crucial to explore its historical background, the social, economic, and

religious factors that influenced its growth, and its role in shaping Indian society.

Meaning of Jati

The term "Jati" comes from the Sanskrit word meaning "birth" or "genus." In Indian society,

it refers to a community that shares common characteristics, such as occupation, rituals,

and customs. Each Jati is a sub-group within the broader system of varna (class), a four-

tiered classification in ancient India that includes Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors),

Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers).

Unlike varna, which was a theoretical classification system found in ancient Hindu texts, Jati

was more practical and local, varying greatly across regions. Jatis were not rigidly tied to the

varna system and could move up or down in social status based on economic or political

conditions. Jati became the basis of everyday social identity in India and continues to be an

important factor in Indian social structure.

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Development of Jati

Early Vedic Period (1500 B.C. - 1000 B.C.)

The origins of the Jati system can be traced back to the Vedic period, when the varna system

first appeared. In the early stages, society was divided mainly based on professions, but

there was more fluidity between different roles. People were often classified by their

occupations, but it was possible for individuals to move between different social groups.

However, this social mobility became more restricted over time.

Later Vedic Period (1000 B.C. - 600 B.C.)

During the later Vedic period, the social structure started becoming more rigid. The four

varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—were more clearly defined, and each

varna started to develop distinct duties and responsibilities. As religious rituals became

more complex, the Brahmins, who were responsible for performing these rituals, gained

significant power. They sought to maintain their authority by restricting certain privileges

and duties to specific groups, which led to the gradual development of caste-based divisions

within society.

By the end of the later Vedic period, the distinction between varnas began to solidify, but it

still wasn’t as rigid as it became in later centuries. Occupational groups and communities

began to align themselves with specific varnas, but the concept of jati, or sub-castes, had

not yet fully developed.

Post-Vedic Period (600 B.C. - 200 A.D.)

In the post-Vedic period, new social changes, influenced by urbanization and the rise of

kingdoms, led to the emergence of different types of Jatis. The Jati system began to take

shape as groups became more specialized in certain occupations, and their social identities

became more tied to their work. For example, artisans, farmers, and traders started to be

grouped into specific Jatis based on their professions.

By the time of the Maurya Empire (322 B.C. - 185 B.C.), the idea of Jati had become more

established. Different occupational groups were recognized, and their social roles were

formalized within the broader varna system. For example, the Shudras, initially considered

laborers, now included various artisan and service-providing groups, each with its own Jati.

Gupta Period (320 A.D. - 550 A.D.)

The Gupta Empire marked a significant era in the formalization of the Jati system. This

period saw a resurgence of Brahminical Hinduism, and with it, the social hierarchy became

more rigid. The division of society into Jatis was based on occupation, family lineage, and

religious practices. The ruling elite, particularly the Brahmins, played a significant role in

consolidating the Jati system.

During this period, inter-Jati marriage and social mobility became increasingly restricted. Jati

identity became hereditary, meaning that people were born into their Jatis and could not

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change them. This contributed to a rigid, hierarchical society where each Jati had specific

roles, duties, and privileges.

The Guptas were strong supporters of the Brahmins, which further solidified the Brahmins'

dominant position in society. The consolidation of landownership and agricultural practices

also led to the formation of new Jatis, particularly among agricultural communities.

Early Medieval Period (550 A.D. - 1200 A.D.)

The early medieval period saw the rise of regional kingdoms and a greater emphasis on local

customs and traditions. The Jati system became more complex and localized during this

time. New Jatis were formed as new professions emerged and as local rulers sought to

organize their subjects according to specific social and economic roles.

During this period, the influence of regional cultures became more pronounced, and the Jati

system became more diverse across India. In some regions, new Jatis were created due to

the fusion of different ethnic groups, particularly as local rulers employed soldiers, artisans,

and administrators from various regions.

Trade also played a crucial role in the development of Jatis. With the expansion of trade

routes, especially maritime trade in South India, new Jatis emerged among merchant

communities. For example, in the Deccan and Tamil Nadu regions, merchant guilds became

powerful, and traders formed their own Jatis, such as the Chettiar community in Tamil

Nadu.

At the same time, religious movements like Bhakti and Jainism questioned the rigid caste

system. Some of these movements emphasized devotion and personal spirituality over

birth-based social hierarchy, providing an alternative to the traditional Jati-based social

order. However, these movements did not significantly disrupt the existing Jati system,

which continued to dominate Indian society.

Factors Influencing the Development of Jati

Several factors contributed to the development and consolidation of the Jati system:

1. Religion: The caste system was closely tied to religious beliefs. Hindu religious texts

such as the Dharmaśāstras and Manu Smriti provided a religious justification for the

social hierarchy, which included both varnas and Jatis. The Brahmins, as religious

leaders, played a key role in promoting and maintaining the Jati system, ensuring

that social duties and religious practices were aligned.

2. Occupation: Occupation played a central role in the formation of Jatis. Groups that

practiced similar trades or professions, such as farmers, blacksmiths, potters, and

weavers, were often grouped into distinct Jatis. Over time, these occupational

groups became hereditary, and the division of labor became more rigid.

3. Political Power: Local rulers and kings often used the Jati system to organize their

subjects and maintain social order. By recognizing different Jatis and their specific

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duties, rulers could ensure that essential services such as agriculture, trade, and

religious rituals were performed.

4. Economic Development: The growth of trade and urbanization also contributed to

the development of Jatis. As new economic activities emerged, new Jatis formed

around these occupations. For example, the rise of maritime trade led to the

creation of merchant Jatis, while agricultural expansion created new Jatis among

farming communities.

5. Social Mobility: Although the Jati system became more rigid over time, there were

still instances of social mobility. Some Jatis were able to improve their status through

economic success, religious merit, or royal favor. For example, successful merchants

or soldiers could gain recognition and rise to higher social ranks.

Significance of Jati up to 1200 A.D.

The Jati system had a profound impact on Indian society up to 1200 A.D. Its significance can

be understood in several key areas:

1. Social Identity: Jati became the primary marker of social identity in India. People

were defined by their Jati affiliation, which determined their occupation, social

status, and religious practices. This system provided a clear framework for social

organization, but it also led to social stratification and inequality.

2. Economic Organization: The Jati system played a crucial role in organizing economic

activities. Each Jati had its own specific role in the economy, whether it was

agriculture, trade, craftsmanship, or religious service. This division of labor ensured

that the economy functioned smoothly, with different Jatis contributing to different

sectors.

3. Religious Practices: Religious rituals and practices were often tied to Jati. Certain

rituals were reserved for specific Jatis, and different Jatis followed their own

religious customs and festivals. Brahmins, as the priestly Jati, held a central role in

religious life, performing rituals for other Jatis.

4. Social Order: The Jati system provided a stable social order, with each Jati having its

own place in the hierarchy. This helped maintain social stability, as people generally

knew their roles and responsibilities within society. However, it also reinforced social

inequality, with higher Jatis enjoying privileges that were denied to lower Jatis.

5. Cultural Diversity: The Jati system contributed to the rich cultural diversity of India.

Each Jati developed its own customs, traditions, and art forms, which added to the

overall cultural mosaic of Indian society. The regional variations in the Jati system

reflected the diverse geography and history of India.

Conclusion

The concept of Jati, which emerged as a system of social classification, played a crucial role

in shaping Indian society by 1200 A.D. It provided social identity, organized economic

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activities, influenced religious practices, and maintained social order. Although it

contributed to cultural diversity, it also reinforced social inequality. By

2. Critically examine the importance of the institution of Marriage Describe different kinds

of marriages developed in Ancient India.

Ans: The Institution of Marriage in Ancient India: Importance and Types

Marriage has been one of the most important social institutions in human history, shaping

societies, families, and cultural practices across the world. In ancient India, the institution of

marriage was deeply rooted in religious, social, and legal traditions. The Vedas, Smritis, and

other religious texts provided guidance on how marriages should be conducted and what

their purpose was. This essay will critically examine the importance of the institution of

marriage in ancient India, and describe the different types of marriages that were practiced

in the country.

Importance of Marriage in Ancient India

1. Social Stability and Continuity

One of the primary purposes of marriage in ancient India was to create social stability and

maintain the continuity of the family lineage. In ancient Hindu society, marriage was

considered a social and religious duty, not just a personal relationship between two

individuals. It was a sacrament (samskara) that symbolized the transition from childhood to

adulthood.

Marriage ensured the continuation of the family line (gotra), which was very important in

Indian society. Sons were expected to carry forward family traditions, rituals, and property,

while daughters were seen as connectors between families through marriage.

2. Religious and Moral Duty (Dharma)

In the religious context, marriage was considered an essential part of dharma (moral duty).

Hinduism considered marriage necessary for fulfilling the purusharthas (four life goals):

dharma (righteousness), artha (prosperity), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation).

Without marriage, an individual was not considered complete in ancient Indian society.

Marriage was also essential for performing religious duties, as certain rituals could only be

performed by married couples. For example, the grihastha (householder) stage of life

required marriage, and it was considered the most important stage in life according to

ancient texts like the Manusmriti. Without fulfilling the responsibilities of a householder,

including raising children and supporting society, an individual could not progress spiritually.

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3. Cultural and Economic Significance

Marriage in ancient India was a way to form alliances between families, castes, and

sometimes even kingdoms. Marriages were often arranged, and the choice of spouse was

influenced by considerations like caste, economic status, and family honor. The practice of

kanyadan (gifting the daughter) was an important aspect of Indian marriage, where the

bride was seen as a valuable gift to the groom's family.

The dowry system also emerged as an economic arrangement during marriages. Although

initially intended to support the newly married couple, dowry became a way for families to

showcase their wealth and social standing.

4. Procreation and Continuation of the Lineage

The most fundamental purpose of marriage in ancient India was procreation. Hindu beliefs

emphasized the continuation of the family lineage, and it was the duty of every couple to

produce children. Sons, in particular, were considered important because they would carry

out family rituals and inherit the family estate.

Procreation was not only seen as a biological necessity but also as a way of fulfilling religious

duties. It was believed that the ancestors (pitras) could only attain peace in the afterlife if

their descendants performed rituals in their name. Therefore, marriage ensured that these

religious obligations were fulfilled through the birth of offspring.

5. Preservation of Social Order

Marriage was used to preserve social order and caste hierarchy in ancient India. Inter-caste

marriages were discouraged, and people were expected to marry within their caste. The

system of varna (caste) was strictly followed, and marriage between different varnas was

rare. This preserved the social hierarchy and ensured that the caste system remained intact

over generations.

In summary, marriage in ancient India was much more than a personal or romantic bond. It

was a fundamental institution for maintaining the social, religious, and cultural fabric of

Indian society.

Types of Marriages in Ancient India

According to the Dharmashastras (legal and religious texts) and the Smritis (moral codes),

there were eight forms of marriage in ancient India. These types of marriages were

categorized based on the way the marriage was arranged and the customs followed.

1. Brahma Marriage

The Brahma marriage was considered the highest and most ideal form of marriage in

ancient India. In this type of marriage, the father of the bride gave his daughter to a man of

good character, learning, and virtues, without expecting anything in return. The Brahma

marriage was conducted with full religious rituals, and it was based on the mutual consent

of both the bride and the groom.

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This type of marriage was primarily followed by the Brahmins (priestly class), and it

symbolized purity and respect for the institution of marriage. It was a way to ensure that the

couple lived a life of religious duties and virtue.

2. Daiva Marriage

In a Daiva marriage, the daughter was married to a priest (usually a Brahmin) who had

officiated a sacrifice or religious ceremony. This type of marriage was less ideal than the

Brahma marriage because the bride's family selected the groom based on his religious role

rather than his personal virtues or qualities.

The Daiva marriage was considered a way for the bride's family to fulfill their religious

duties, but it was not seen as an ideal choice because the selection of the groom was not

entirely based on mutual love or compatibility.

3. Arsha Marriage

In an Arsha marriage, the groom was expected to give a gift (usually a cow or a pair of oxen)

to the bride's family as a token of respect. This type of marriage was primarily followed by

the Rishis (sages), and it had a more practical aspect compared to the idealized Brahma

marriage.

The Arsha marriage was less common in later periods, as it was seen as a more transactional

form of marriage, where the bride's family was compensated for giving away their daughter.

This form of marriage was accepted in ancient India, though it was not as highly regarded as

the Brahma marriage.

4. Prajapatya Marriage

In a Prajapatya marriage, the bride's father gave his daughter to the groom with a blessing,

saying, "May both of you perform your religious duties together." Unlike other forms of

marriage, this type emphasized the shared responsibility of both the husband and wife in

fulfilling their religious and household duties.

This form of marriage was similar to the Brahma marriage but with a greater focus on

partnership and mutual responsibilities in religious and household matters.

5. Gandharva Marriage

The Gandharva marriage was a form of love marriage, where the couple married each other

without the involvement of their families or any formal rituals. It was based on mutual love,

affection, and consent between the couple.

Although it was recognized as a legitimate form of marriage, the Gandharva marriage was

not highly regarded in orthodox Hindu society because it did not follow the traditional

rituals and customs. However, it was acknowledged in ancient texts, and examples of such

marriages can be found in Indian mythology, like the marriage of Dushyanta and Shakuntala

in the Mahabharata.

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6. Asura Marriage

In an Asura marriage, the groom gave wealth or other gifts to the bride's family in exchange

for the bride. This form of marriage was considered inappropriate because it resembled a

commercial transaction. The Asura marriage was more common among non-Aryan tribes

and was looked down upon by the Brahmanical society.

The practice of dowry, which later became widespread in India, can be traced back to some

elements of the Asura marriage, although it evolved differently in later periods.

7. Rakshasa Marriage

The Rakshasa marriage involved the forcible abduction of a woman by a man, usually during

times of war or conflict. In this type of marriage, the man took the woman against her will,

and it was not based on mutual consent.

The Rakshasa marriage was considered barbaric and was strongly condemned by Hindu law.

However, it was acknowledged in ancient texts as a possible form of marriage, though it was

not encouraged.

8. Paishacha Marriage

The Paishacha marriage was the most condemned form of marriage in ancient India. In this

type of marriage, the man took advantage of a woman when she was either unconscious,

intoxicated, or mentally unstable. It was considered a sinful and unlawful form of marriage,

and it was never encouraged or accepted by Hindu society.

Conclusion

Marriage in ancient India was a complex institution with deep social, religious, and cultural

significance. It was not only a personal relationship but also a means of maintaining social

order, religious duties, and family continuity. The different types of marriages reflected the

diversity of practices in Indian society, from the highly respected Brahma marriage to the

condemned Paishacha marriage.

In conclusion, marriage played a vital role in shaping ancient Indian society, and its various

forms demonstrated the range of cultural and moral values that governed Indian life.

Through marriage, individuals were able to fulfill their religious obligations, continue their

family lineage, and contribute to the social and economic stability of their community.

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SECTION-B

3. What was Vedic religion. Discuss in detail the main principles of Vedic religion.

Ans: Vedic Religion: An Overview

The Vedic religion, also known as Vedism, refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the

ancient Indo-Aryan people of India during the Vedic period (roughly between 1500 BCE and

500 BCE). It is named after the Vedas, a collection of ancient texts that form the foundation

of Vedic religion. The Vedas are regarded as sacred scriptures, believed to be divinely

inspired and passed down through generations by oral tradition before being written down.

These texts include the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda.

The Vedic religion laid the groundwork for Hinduism as we know it today, though it was

quite different in practice from modern Hinduism. Its principles and rituals were largely

focused on maintaining cosmic order and harmony, as well as ensuring the prosperity and

well-being of the community.

Key Texts of the Vedic Religion

1. The Rigveda: The oldest of the Vedas, it is a collection of hymns and praises to the

gods. It is considered the most important of the four Vedas and contains insights into

the beliefs of the early Vedic people.

2. The Yajurveda: This Veda contains instructions for rituals and sacrifices, particularly

focusing on the proper execution of Vedic ceremonies.

3. The Samaveda: Primarily a book of melodies, it contains hymns that are meant to be

sung during sacrifices.

4. The Atharvaveda: The last of the Vedas, it contains more esoteric hymns, dealing

with magic, healing, and protection from evil forces.

Major Principles of Vedic Religion

The Vedic religion was deeply rooted in a worldview that emphasized the

interconnectedness of cosmic forces, human actions, and divine beings. Below are the main

principles and features of the Vedic religion.

1. Polytheism: Worship of Many Gods

The Vedic religion was polytheistic, meaning the people believed in and worshipped

multiple gods, each with specific functions and powers. These gods represented natural

forces like the sun, wind, and fire. Some of the major gods in the Vedic pantheon were:

• Indra: The king of the gods and the god of rain, thunder, and war. He was the most

celebrated deity in the Rigveda.

• Agni: The god of fire and the intermediary between gods and humans. Agni was

considered essential in sacrifices as he carried offerings to the deities.

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• Varuna: The god of cosmic order and law, responsible for maintaining the balance of

the universe.

• Surya: The sun god, who was worshipped for his power to provide light and life.

• Soma: Both a deity and a sacred plant whose juice was used in religious rituals to

bring vitality and divine inspiration.

2. Yajna (Sacrifice)

The Vedic religion placed a significant emphasis on Yajna, or ritual sacrifices, which were

performed to please the gods. The belief was that these sacrifices helped maintain cosmic

order, known as Rta, and ensured the continued flow of benefits like rain, fertility, health,

and victory in battle.

Sacrifices involved the offering of various items such as milk, butter, grains, animals, and the

juice of the Soma plant. Fire played a central role in these rituals, with Agni (the god of fire)

serving as the conduit through which the offerings were sent to the gods. These sacrifices

were performed by priests known as Brahmins, who were the intermediaries between

humans and the divine.

The correct performance of rituals was crucial, as it was believed that even minor mistakes

could disrupt cosmic balance and bring misfortune.

3. Cosmic Order (Rta)

A key concept in Vedic religion was Rta, the principle of cosmic order, truth, and law. The

Vedic people believed that the universe was governed by a natural, moral law that ensured

harmony and balance in both the physical and spiritual realms. This cosmic order was

maintained through the performance of sacrifices, proper conduct, and adherence to

Dharma (moral and ethical duties).

Rta was responsible for the changing of seasons, the movement of celestial bodies, and the

proper functioning of society. Any disruption to Rta, whether through neglect of religious

duties or immoral behavior, could bring chaos, disease, and suffering.

4. Dharma (Moral Duty)

Though the term Dharma is more commonly associated with later Hinduism, it also had its

roots in Vedic religion. Dharma referred to the duties and responsibilities of individuals in

accordance with their position in society, family, and the universe. In the Vedic period,

Dharma primarily related to the proper performance of sacrifices, rituals, and one's societal

role, particularly for the Brahmins.

5. The Concept of Purusha (Cosmic Man)

A key myth in the Vedic religion was the story of Purusha, the cosmic man, whose body was

sacrificed by the gods to create the world and the different varnas or social classes. This

story is found in the Purusha Sukta hymn of the Rigveda. According to this myth, from

Purusha's body emerged the four main social classes:

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• The Brahmins (priests) from his mouth, responsible for performing religious rituals.

• The Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) from his arms, responsible for protecting society.

• The Vaishyas (merchants and agriculturalists) from his thighs, responsible for trade

and farming.

• The Shudras (servants and laborers) from his feet, responsible for serving the other

classes.

This myth not only explained the origins of the universe but also justified the social

hierarchy that became central to the structure of Vedic society.

6. Rebirth and Karma

Though not as fully developed as in later Hinduism, the concepts of karma (action and its

consequences) and rebirth had their roots in Vedic religion. It was believed that one's

actions, particularly in relation to sacrifices and rituals, could influence their future. Good

actions, performed in accordance with Rta and Dharma, could lead to positive outcomes in

this life and possibly in the next, while immoral actions could bring suffering.

7. Vedic Hymns and Chanting

The recitation of hymns and chanting of mantras were central to the practice of Vedic

religion. The Rigveda contains numerous hymns dedicated to various gods, which were

chanted during sacrifices and other rituals. These hymns were considered to have a magical

power, capable of influencing the gods and the forces of nature. Priests played a key role in

reciting these hymns accurately, as even the slightest mispronunciation was believed to

have serious consequences.

8. The Role of Priests (Brahmins)

The Brahmins held a central place in Vedic religion as the priestly class responsible for

performing sacrifices, conducting rituals, and preserving the Vedic texts. They were

considered the guardians of knowledge, as they were entrusted with memorizing and

transmitting the sacred Vedic hymns from generation to generation.

Brahmins were not just religious leaders but also social and political advisors. Their role was

crucial in maintaining the proper functioning of both cosmic order and societal order. They

had significant influence in Vedic society due to their knowledge of religious practices and

their ability to mediate between humans and the gods.

9. Belief in the Afterlife

The Vedic people believed in an afterlife, though their conception of it was somewhat vague

compared to later Hindu beliefs. They believed that those who performed sacrifices and

lived righteous lives would go to Svarga (heaven), where they would enjoy a blissful

existence in the company of the gods.

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However, the idea of moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth) was not prominent in

early Vedic religion. The focus was more on attaining a good afterlife through proper ritual

conduct than on escaping the cycle of rebirth entirely.

Transition to Later Hinduism

While the Vedic religion laid the foundation for Hinduism, several changes occurred over

time that transformed it into the more philosophical and devotional religion of later periods.

By the time of the Upanishads (c. 800-500 BCE), the focus began to shift from external

rituals to inner knowledge, meditation, and the pursuit of spiritual liberation.

The gods of the Vedic pantheon, such as Indra and Agni, became less important, while new

deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma rose to prominence. The concept of Brahman, the

ultimate reality or world soul, also became central in the Upanishadic period, marking a

significant philosophical shift from the ritualism of the Vedic religion.

Conclusion

The Vedic religion was an early form of religious belief and practice that centered on the

worship of nature gods, the performance of sacrifices, and the maintenance of cosmic

order. Its core principles—such as polytheism, Yajna (sacrifice), Dharma (duty), and Rta

(cosmic order)—shaped the religious and social life of the Vedic people and laid the

foundation for later developments in Hinduism. Over time, the emphasis on ritual and

sacrifice gave way to more philosophical and meditative practices, leading to the evolution

of Hinduism as a major world religion.

4. Give an account of the origin and sectarian development of the Jainism.

Ans: Origin and Sectarian Development of Jainism

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India, rooted in non-violence and respect for all living

beings. It emerged as a distinct religious and philosophical tradition during the 6th century

BCE. The religion revolves around self-discipline, non-attachment, and spiritual purity. This

essay will provide a detailed account of the origin of Jainism and its sectarian developments

in simple language.

Origin of Jainism

Historical Background

Jainism, like Buddhism, emerged during a time of great social, religious, and intellectual

upheaval in ancient India. This period, around the 6th century BCE, saw a shift from the

dominance of Vedic rituals, which were focused on sacrifices and complex ceremonies, to

new philosophical ideas. People began seeking simpler ways to attain spiritual

enlightenment and questioned the need for elaborate rituals and priestly intermediaries.

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Jainism, along with other religious movements like Buddhism, offered an alternative path

that focused more on individual effort, non-violence (ahimsa), and asceticism.

Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara

Though Jainism traces its spiritual lineage through 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), it was

the 24th Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira, who is considered the most significant in

shaping Jainism as we know it today. Mahavira was born around 599 BCE in what is now

Bihar, India. He was born into a royal family, but at the age of 30, he renounced his princely

life to seek spiritual liberation.

For the next 12 years, Mahavira led a life of extreme asceticism. He practiced severe self-

denial, fasting for long periods and meditating deeply. During this period, he attained Kevala

Jnana (omniscience or perfect knowledge). Mahavira preached for 30 years, spreading his

message of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, chastity, and non-attachment.

Teachings of Jainism

The core teachings of Mahavira and Jainism can be summarized through five key principles:

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): The most fundamental Jain principle, which calls for respect

for all forms of life, whether human, animal, or even microscopic organisms.

2. Satya (Truth): Always speak the truth.

3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Avoid taking anything that is not rightfully yours.

4. Brahmacharya (Chastity): Control over sensual pleasures.

5. Aparigraha (Non-possession): Letting go of material attachments.

The Concept of Tirthankaras

A distinctive feature of Jainism is the belief in Tirthankaras. They are spiritual beings who

have attained enlightenment and help others cross the ocean of worldly life (samsara) to

achieve liberation (moksha). Mahavira was the last of these 24 Tirthankaras, with the first

being Rishabhanatha. Jain texts suggest that these teachers appear in every cycle of time to

guide souls toward liberation.

Sectarian Development of Jainism

Jainism, after the death of Mahavira, continued to flourish. However, over time, differences

in practices and interpretations led to the formation of two major sects in Jainism:

Digambara and Svetambara. This division occurred around 200 years after Mahavira’s death,

during the early centuries of the Common Era.

1. Digambara Sect

The word "Digambara" means “sky-clad” or "those who wear the sky," referring to the

practice of renunciation, where ascetics of this sect do not wear any clothes, symbolizing

their complete detachment from worldly possessions.

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Key Beliefs of Digambara Sect:

• Nudity: The Digambara monks practice complete nudity, which they believe

represents renunciation of all material attachments.

• Position on Women: Digambaras believe that women cannot attain liberation

directly and must first be reborn as men. They assert that women cannot practice

the severe asceticism necessary for liberation.

• Texts and Scriptures: Digambaras do not accept some of the Svetambara scriptures.

They argue that the original Jain texts were lost during a famine, and the

Svetambaras’ texts are reconstructions, not the true words of Mahavira.

• Statues and Worship: The statues of Tirthankaras in Digambara tradition are

depicted without any clothes, as nudity is a sign of renunciation. The images are

often simple and devoid of ornamentation.

2. Svetambara Sect

The term "Svetambara" means “white-clad,” referring to the white robes worn by the

monks and nuns of this sect. Unlike the Digambaras, Svetambaras do not practice complete

nudity.

Key Beliefs of Svetambara Sect:

• Clothing: Svetambara monks and nuns wear simple white clothes, symbolizing

purity.

• Position on Women: Svetambaras believe that women are capable of achieving

liberation without having to be reborn as men. They emphasize equality in the

spiritual path.

• Texts and Scriptures: Svetambaras accept a larger number of Jain scriptures. They

argue that these texts were preserved even during the famine that the Digambaras

refer to.

• Statues and Worship: In Svetambara temples, the images of Tirthankaras are

depicted as clothed and often adorned with jewels and ornaments. The statues have

open, gentle eyes, symbolizing compassion.

Philosophical Differences Between Digambara and Svetambara

Despite the shared core beliefs, Digambara and Svetambara Jains hold different

philosophical views. These differences are rooted in their interpretations of Mahavira’s

teachings.

1. Kevala Jnana (Omniscience):

o Digambaras believe that a person who has achieved Kevala Jnana

(omniscience) does not need food or water and lives purely on their inner

energy.

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o Svetambaras, on the other hand, believe that even an omniscient being

continues to eat and drink.

2. Moksha (Liberation):

o Both sects believe in the attainment of moksha, but they differ in how one

can achieve it. The Digambaras emphasize stricter ascetic practices, while

Svetambaras focus more on a balanced life of renunciation and compassion.

Further Subdivisions and Sects in Jainism

Over time, both Digambara and Svetambara sects themselves underwent further divisions,

primarily due to differences in religious practices, rituals, and interpretations.

1. Digambara Subsects

• Bispanthi and Terapanthi: These are two subsects within the Digambara tradition.

The Bispanthis follow more elaborate rituals and have images of gods like Ganesha in

their temples, whereas Terapanthis are more orthodox and emphasize simplicity in

worship, rejecting the worship of other deities besides the Tirthankaras.

• Taranpanthi: This subsect arose in the 15th century and emphasizes devotion to

sacred texts and Tirthankaras, without idol worship.

2. Svetambara Subsects

• Murtipujaka: The Murtipujakas are image worshippers, and their temples house

beautifully adorned images of the Tirthankaras. This subsect emphasizes rituals and

idol worship.

• Sthanakavasi: This sect rejects idol worship and focuses more on meditation, self-

discipline, and prayer.

• Terapanthi: Like the Digambara Terapanthi, this Svetambara subsect also

emphasizes strict adherence to non-ritualistic, non-idol worshipping practices. They

are known for their disciplined monastic order and strict ethical codes.

Jainism in Modern Times

Jainism has continued to influence Indian culture and society profoundly. Its emphasis on

non-violence has impacted India's social and political movements, most notably influencing

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of Ahimsa during the Indian independence struggle.

In the modern world, Jainism is practiced by a small but influential community, mostly in

India but also in other parts of the world. The Jain community is known for its contributions

to education, business, and social welfare. Many Jains today, while not adopting the

extreme ascetic lifestyle of monks and nuns, still follow a vegetarian diet, practice non-

violence, and engage in charitable work.

Jain temples, with their intricate architecture and peaceful ambiance, continue to serve as

centers of religious and spiritual life for followers. Jain festivals such as Paryushana and

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Mahavir Jayanti are celebrated with devotion and serve as a reminder of the enduring

spiritual traditions of this ancient religion.

Conclusion

Jainism, with its origins in ancient India, offers a path of non-violence, self-discipline, and

spiritual liberation. While Mahavira is credited with shaping Jainism in its modern form, the

religion's roots run deep, tracing back through 23 previous Tirthankaras. Despite sectarian

differences, Jainism remains united in its core belief system and continues to be a significant

religious tradition in India and beyond.

The divisions between Digambara and Svetambara reflect different interpretations of Jain

practices, but both sects strive toward the same goal: liberation from the cycle of birth and

death. As one of the oldest religious traditions, Jainism has left an indelible mark on Indian

culture, philosophy, and ethics.

SECTION-C

5. Critically examine the origin and development of Saivism in Early India.

Ans: Saivism, or Shaivism, is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that worships Lord

Shiva as the supreme deity. It has a long and fascinating history that dates back to early

India, influencing religious, cultural, and social life over centuries. The origin and

development of Saivism is a complex process that took place over many centuries,

incorporating various local beliefs, rituals, and philosophies into a unified religious

movement. Here, we will explore the critical aspects of its origin and development in early

India.

Origin of Saivism

Pre-Vedic Roots

The roots of Saivism can be traced back to ancient times, even before the composition of

the Vedas (the oldest religious texts of Hinduism). Archaeological evidence from the Indus

Valley Civilization (around 2500–1500 BCE) suggests that some of the seals found in this

region depict a figure sitting in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals. This figure is often

associated with Pashupati, a proto-Shiva form, although this interpretation remains debated

among scholars.

This early depiction hints at the possibility that the worship of a deity similar to Shiva existed

in ancient India. Pashupati means "Lord of the Animals," and later texts associate this title

with Shiva. This suggests that some aspects of Shiva's worship were already present in the

pre-Vedic period.

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Vedic Period

During the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), Shiva does not appear as a major deity. However,

there are references to Rudra, a god of storms and destruction, who is often considered an

early form of Shiva. Rudra is portrayed as a fierce and terrifying deity in the Rigveda, the

oldest of the Vedic texts, but also as a healer and protector. These dual aspects of

destruction and protection would later become key characteristics of Shiva.

In the Vedas, Rudra is both feared and revered, and his connection with nature, especially

with mountains and forests, links him to the later image of Shiva as a god who resides in the

Himalayas. Over time, Rudra's image softened and evolved, incorporating more benevolent

aspects, and eventually, Rudra merged with other regional deities to form the figure of

Shiva in later texts.

The Upanishads and Puranas

The transition from Rudra to Shiva became more pronounced during the time of the

Upanishads (around 800–200 BCE), which are philosophical texts that explore the nature of

the self and the universe. In these texts, the figure of Shiva begins to emerge more clearly as

a symbol of meditation, knowledge, and spiritual power.

In the Puranas, which were written later (around 300–1000 CE), we see the full

development of Shiva as a major god. These texts contain elaborate stories about Shiva's

life, his marriage to Parvati, his children (such as Ganesha and Kartikeya), and his many

forms and attributes, such as the Nataraja (Lord of Dance) and Ardhanarishvara (a form that

is half male and half female). The Puranas were crucial in popularizing Saivism and spreading

its teachings to the masses.

Development of Saivism

Early Spread and Popularity

Saivism developed as a major religious tradition in India during the post-Vedic period,

particularly from around 500 BCE onwards. It gained followers from various strata of

society, including kings, warriors, merchants, and common people. Unlike the more

ritualistic forms of worship found in early Vedic religion, Saivism emphasized personal

devotion (bhakti) to Shiva and often featured simpler rituals, making it accessible to a

broader range of people.

Philosophical Foundations: The Shaiva Agamas

A key aspect of the development of Saivism is its rich philosophical tradition. The Shaiva

Agamas are a collection of scriptures that serve as the foundation for both the ritual and

philosophical aspects of Saivism. These texts were written between the 1st and 8th

centuries CE and focus on the worship of Shiva as the supreme being. The Agamas outline

the rituals for temple worship, describe the different forms of Shiva, and explore various

theological concepts.

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One of the central ideas in the Shaiva Agamas is the concept of Pati-Pashu-Pasha, which

refers to the relationship between the soul (Pashu), the bondage of ignorance (Pasha), and

Shiva (Pati), who is the lord that liberates the soul from this bondage. This concept became

central to many Saiva schools of thought.

Different Schools of Saivism

Over time, Saivism developed into various schools and sects, each with its own

interpretation of the nature of Shiva and the path to liberation. Some of the most

prominent schools include:

1. Kashmir Shaivism: Also known as Trika Shaivism, this school developed in the

Kashmir region and is known for its sophisticated philosophy of non-dualism

(Advaita). In Kashmir Shaivism, Shiva is seen as both the creator and the creation,

and everything in the universe is considered a manifestation of his divine energy

(Shakti).

2. Shaiva Siddhanta: This is a dualistic school of Saivism that originated in South India,

particularly in Tamil Nadu. Shaiva Siddhanta emphasizes the distinction between the

individual soul and Shiva, with liberation being achieved through devotion, ethical

living, and the grace of Shiva.

3. Pashupata Shaivism: One of the earliest sects of Saivism, Pashupata Shaivism,

focuses on asceticism and renunciation. Its followers believed in intense practices to

detach themselves from worldly desires and merge with Shiva.

4. Veerashaivism: This movement emerged in Karnataka around the 12th century CE

and is associated with the poet-saint Basava. It emphasized social equality, rejected

caste distinctions, and advocated for direct devotion to Shiva without the need for

intermediaries like priests or elaborate rituals.

Temples and Iconography

As Saivism grew in popularity, temples dedicated to Shiva were built across India. These

temples became important centers of worship, pilgrimage, and cultural life. The

iconography of Shiva also developed during this time, with different forms of the deity being

represented in sculpture and art.

Some of the most famous representations of Shiva include:

• Nataraja: This is one of the most iconic images of Shiva, showing him as the cosmic

dancer who performs the Tandava, a dance that symbolizes the cycle of creation and

destruction.

• Lingam: The Shiva Lingam is a simple and abstract representation of Shiva, often

found in temples and used as the primary object of worship. It symbolizes the

formless nature of Shiva.

• Ardhanarishvara: This form shows Shiva as half male and half female, symbolizing

the unity of masculine and feminine energies.

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Temples dedicated to Shiva, such as the ones in Varanasi, Tamil Nadu (Thanjavur,

Chidambaram), and Ellora, played a crucial role in the spread and consolidation of Saivism.

These temples not only served as places of worship but also as centers of education and

cultural exchange.

The Role of Bhakti Movement in the Spread of Saivism

One of the key factors in the spread of Saivism was the Bhakti movement, which emerged

around the 6th century CE and continued into the medieval period. Bhakti refers to intense

devotion to a personal god, and in the case of Saivism, this god was Shiva. The Bhakti

movement was characterized by the composition of devotional songs, poems, and hymns in

regional languages, which made the teachings of Saivism accessible to the common people.

In South India, the Nayanars were a group of poet-saints who composed devotional hymns

in praise of Shiva. These hymns, written in Tamil, were collected in a text called the

Tirumurai, and they played a significant role in spreading Saivism across the region.

The Bhakti movement helped to break down the barriers of caste and social status,

emphasizing that anyone, regardless of their birth, could attain salvation through devotion

to Shiva. This aspect of the movement made Saivism particularly popular among the lower

castes and marginalized groups in society.

Saivism Under the Cholas and Later Dynasties

Saivism reached new heights under the rule of the Chola dynasty (9th–13th century CE),

which was a major patron of Shaiva temples and culture. The Cholas built grand temples like

the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, which became important centers for the worship

of Shiva. These temples also served as cultural hubs, where art, dance, music, and literature

flourished under royal patronage.

Under the Cholas and other South Indian dynasties, Saivism became closely linked to

political power. Kings and rulers often portrayed themselves as devout followers of Shiva,

which helped legitimize their rule and gain the support of the people.

Conclusion

The origin and development of Saivism in early India is a complex and multi-faceted process

that spans several centuries. From its pre-Vedic roots to its formalization in the Vedas,

Upanishads, and Puranas, Saivism evolved into a major religious tradition that played a

central role in Indian culture and spirituality. The rise of various schools of thought, the

construction of grand temples, and the spread of the Bhakti movement all contributed to

the widespread popularity of Saivism.

By emphasizing devotion, personal connection with the divine, and ethical living, Saivism

appealed to people from all walks of life. Its rich philosophical foundations and vibrant

cultural practices ensured that it remained a dominant force in Indian religious life for

centuries, influencing art, literature, and social customs. Even today, Saivism continues to be

an important tradition within Hinduism, with millions of followers worldwide

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6. Explain the salient doctrines of Bhakti movement in India. Discuss the contribution of

early proponents for the development of Bhakti movement.

Ans: The Bhakti movement was a significant religious and cultural reform in India that emerged

between the 12th and 16th centuries. It focused on personal devotion to a god, moving away from

rituals, complex temple worship, and the rigidities of the caste system. The movement is known for

emphasizing love, devotion, and direct connection to a personal deity, making spirituality more

accessible to ordinary people.

Salient Doctrines of the Bhakti Movement

1. Devotion Over Rituals (Bhakti Over Karma): One of the central teachings of the Bhakti

movement was that devotion (or Bhakti) to God was more important than the performance

of elaborate rituals. According to this philosophy, a deep, heartfelt connection to God, based

on love and faith, was sufficient for salvation. This was a shift from the traditional karma

marga (path of actions) that emphasized sacrifices, rituals, and Vedic ceremonies.

2. Personal God and Monotheism: The Bhakti movement stressed devotion to a personal god

or deity. This god could be worshipped in many forms, like Vishnu, Shiva, or a goddess.

While the Hindu religion has many deities, the Bhakti movement often promoted the idea of

monotheism, where a single personal god became the central focus of devotion. For

instance, poets and saints like Kabir, Mirabai, and Tulsidas expressed devotion to Rama or

Krishna, while some preferred formless gods.

3. Equality and No Caste Distinction: A revolutionary aspect of the Bhakti movement was its

challenge to the caste system and social hierarchies. The Bhakti saints preached that

anyone, regardless of caste, gender, or social status, could attain God through devotion.

They argued that God's grace was available to everyone equally, whether they were

Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, or even “untouchables.”

4. Universal Brotherhood: Bhakti saints emphasized the idea of universal brotherhood. They

believed that God resides in every being, and therefore, all people should be treated with

respect and love. This idea led to the rejection of discrimination based on religion, caste, or

wealth, promoting a more inclusive society.

5. Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti: The Bhakti movement recognized two major forms of devotion:

o Nirguna Bhakti refers to devotion to a formless, abstract concept of God. Saints like

Kabir and Guru Nanak followed this path. They believed God could not be confined

to physical attributes and should be worshipped in a formless, infinite manner.

o Saguna Bhakti, on the other hand, is the worship of God with form, such as Rama or

Krishna. Devotees like Tulsidas and Mirabai were Saguna bhaktas who expressed

their love for God in the form of devotion to these divine incarnations.

6. Emphasis on Love and Surrender (Prema and Sharanagati): The Bhakti movement laid great

stress on prema (divine love) and sharanagati (surrender to God). Bhakti saints believed that

the highest form of devotion was one where the devotee surrenders themselves completely

to God, out of love, without expecting anything in return.

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7. Simple Language and Poetry: To spread their teachings to common people, Bhakti saints

composed poetry and songs in local languages such as Hindi, Tamil, Marathi, and Bengali.

They avoided the complex Sanskrit of the Vedic texts, ensuring their messages reached all

strata of society. These devotional songs, or bhajans, are still sung in various forms of

worship across India today.

Early Proponents of the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement did not originate at one specific time or place; rather, it evolved over

centuries, with saints across different regions of India contributing to its spread and development.

Below are some of the early proponents of the Bhakti movement and their contributions:

1. Ramanuja (1017-1137 AD):

• Background: Ramanuja was one of the earliest proponents of the Bhakti movement in South

India. He was a philosopher and theologian, known for his teachings on Vishishtadvaita

Vedanta (qualified non-dualism), which emphasized the importance of a personal god,

specifically Vishnu.

• Contribution: Ramanuja’s philosophy centered on devotion to Vishnu as a supreme being

who is both immanent and transcendent. He taught that salvation could be attained not

through rigorous asceticism or ritualistic practices but through devotion and love for God.

He is also credited with organizing temple worship and bringing more accessible religious

practices to the common people.

2. Basava (1105–1167 AD):

• Background: Basava was a social reformer and philosopher in Karnataka. He is credited with

founding the Lingayat sect, which was devoted to the worship of Lord Shiva.

• Contribution: Basava was a fierce opponent of the caste system and promoted equality

among all people. He encouraged the worship of a formless God, rejected temple rituals,

and advocated for social justice. His teachings, known as Vachanas (simple and direct

poems), were in the local language, Kannada, and made religion accessible to all.

3. Ramananda (1400–1470 AD):

• Background: Ramananda was a Bhakti saint from North India who was a disciple of

Ramanuja. He broke away from traditionalist practices and spread the message of devotion

in the Hindi-speaking regions.

• Contribution: Ramananda emphasized the worship of Rama and Sita and spread the Bhakti

message to all social classes. He is particularly noted for accepting disciples from all castes

and religious backgrounds, including Kabir (a weaver), Ravidas (a cobbler), and Pipa (a king).

This inclusivity was radical at the time, as it challenged the established norms of Brahminical

supremacy.

4. Kabir (1440-1518 AD):

• Background: Kabir was one of the most prominent Nirguna Bhakti saints. He was born in

Varanasi to a family of weavers and was influenced by both Hinduism and Islam.

• Contribution: Kabir’s poetry challenged both Hindu and Islamic orthodoxy. He rejected the

idol worship and rituals of Hinduism, as well as the rigid practices of Sharia law in Islam. His

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philosophy was based on universal love and the idea of a formless God. His poems (known

as dohas) emphasized the futility of external rituals and stressed the importance of an

internal, personal connection with God.

5. Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD):

• Background: Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was born in the Punjab region. He was

deeply influenced by the Bhakti and Sufi traditions of his time.

• Contribution: Guru Nanak’s teachings blended the Bhakti movement’s emphasis on

devotion with social reform. He advocated for equality of all human beings, rejected the

caste system, and stressed the importance of honest living and community service. His

hymns, compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib, continue to guide Sikhs in their spiritual and

ethical lives.

6. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 AD):

• Background: Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal, deeply devoted to Krishna. He played a key

role in popularizing Vaishnavism in Eastern India.

• Contribution: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu emphasized bhakti as a form of ecstatic love for

Krishna, expressed through singing and dancing. His followers promoted the Hare Krishna

movement, which gained wide acceptance and continues to be influential to this day.

Chaitanya's teachings spread the message of Krishna Bhakti across Bengal and other parts of

India, making it one of the most popular forms of worship.

7. Mirabai (1498-1547 AD):

• Background: Mirabai was a princess from Rajasthan who is one of the most famous women

saints of the Bhakti movement. She was a passionate devotee of Krishna.

• Contribution: Mirabai’s songs and poetry express her deep love and devotion to Lord

Krishna. She defied social conventions, abandoned her royal status, and composed

devotional songs in Braj Bhasha and Rajasthani. Mirabai’s devotion to Krishna as her divine

lover is considered one of the purest forms of Bhakti.

8. Tulsidas (1532–1623 AD):

• Background: Tulsidas was a poet-saint who popularized the worship of Rama. He is best

known for his epic poem, the Ramcharitmanas, which retold the Ramayana in the local

dialect of Awadhi.

• Contribution: Tulsidas played a crucial role in making Rama worship a central part of the

Bhakti movement, especially in North India. His Ramcharitmanas is still read and revered by

millions. He promoted the idea of

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SECTION-D

7. Analyse the growth of art of sculpture of India with special reference to the Gandhara

and Mathura School of Art.

Ans: The growth of Indian art, especially sculpture, is a rich and fascinating topic, as it

reflects the country's cultural, religious, and social development. Two important schools of

sculpture that played a significant role during the early centuries of Indian history are the

Gandhara School of Art and the Mathura School of Art. These two schools developed during

different periods and in different regions, yet they both contributed significantly to the

evolution of Indian sculpture.

The Gandhara School of Art

Historical Context

The Gandhara School of Art flourished between the 1st century BCE and the 5th century CE

in the region of present-day northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. This region was a

melting pot of cultures due to its strategic location on trade routes connecting India with

Central Asia and the Mediterranean. As a result, Gandhara art is heavily influenced by

Greco-Roman artistic traditions, which came to India through Alexander the Great's

conquests and subsequent interactions with the Hellenistic world.

The Gandhara School is particularly known for its sculptures of the Buddha. The art

developed during the reign of the Kushan Empire under rulers like Kanishka who were great

patrons of Buddhism. The sculptures created in this region were largely influenced by the

need to express Buddhist religious themes, particularly the life and teachings of the Buddha.

Features of Gandhara Sculpture

1. Greco-Roman Influence: One of the most distinguishing features of Gandhara

sculpture is the influence of Greco-Roman art. The sculptors of Gandhara were

skilled in depicting the human form with realistic proportions and a strong sense of

musculature, which can be seen in the sculptures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas

(future Buddhas). This is a significant departure from the earlier Indian tradition,

which often stylized the human body.

The Buddha in Gandhara sculptures is often depicted in a robe, draped in a Greco-Roman

style, with wavy hair and realistic facial expressions. The use of contrapposto, a stance

where the weight of the body is shifted onto one leg, was common in Gandhara art, further

showcasing the Greek influence.

2. Materials Used: Gandhara artists primarily used schist stone, which is grey in color

and allows for fine details to be carved. This material was ideal for depicting the

folds in the robes of the Buddha and the intricate details of hair and facial features.

3. Depictions of the Buddha: One of the most significant contributions of the Gandhara

School was the development of the Buddha image in human form. Prior to this,

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Buddhist art had relied on aniconic representations of the Buddha (using symbols

such as the lotus, footprints, or the Bodhi tree). The Gandhara artists were among

the first to create life-sized statues of the Buddha, emphasizing his serenity,

compassion, and spiritual wisdom.

These statues often depict the Buddha in various mudras (symbolic hand gestures), such as

the dhyana mudra (gesture of meditation) or the abhaya mudra (gesture of protection and

fearlessness).

4. Narrative Reliefs: In addition to freestanding sculptures, Gandhara artists also

created narrative reliefs that depicted scenes from the life of the Buddha, such as his

birth, enlightenment, and the first sermon at Sarnath. These reliefs are characterized

by realistic settings, with architectural elements resembling Greco-Roman styles

such as columns, arches, and capitals.

5. Influence of Other Cultures: Besides Greco-Roman elements, Gandhara art also

incorporated influences from Persia, Central Asia, and India. This multiculturalism is

evident in the rich variety of clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry depicted in the

sculptures, reflecting the diverse population of the Gandhara region.

Significance of Gandhara Art

The Gandhara School of Art played a crucial role in the spread of Buddhism across Central

Asia and into China and Japan. The realistic depiction of the Buddha in human form made it

easier for people of different cultures to relate to the religion and its teachings. The art of

Gandhara also served as a bridge between the East and West, blending Greek, Roman,

Persian, and Indian elements into a unique and enduring artistic style.

The Mathura School of Art

Historical Context

The Mathura School of Art developed in the city of Mathura, located in northern India,

during the Kushan period, roughly contemporaneous with the Gandhara School. Mathura

was an important cultural and religious center in ancient India, associated with the worship

of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain deities. Unlike Gandhara, which was influenced by external

cultures, the Mathura School was deeply rooted in indigenous Indian traditions.

Mathura art flourished during the Kushan Empire, particularly under the rule of Kanishka

and later rulers. This period saw the construction of stupas, monasteries, and temples, all of

which were adorned with sculptures. The artists of Mathura developed a distinctive style

that was more closely tied to Indian aesthetics and symbolism, in contrast to the naturalism

of Gandhara.

Features of Mathura Sculpture

1. Indian Influence: The Mathura School of Art represents a continuation of the Indian

sculptural tradition. Unlike Gandhara, where Greco-Roman influence is dominant,

Mathura artists focused on Indian themes, particularly the depiction of Hindu,

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Buddhist, and Jain deities. The sculptures are more stylized and symbolic, with less

emphasis on realistic human anatomy.

2. Depictions of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas: The Buddha sculptures from Mathura

are different from those of Gandhara. While Gandhara depicts the Buddha in a

Greco-Roman robe, the Buddha in Mathura is often depicted in a dhoti, the

traditional Indian garment, and the body is more robust and less naturalistic. The

faces of Mathura Buddhas are more round and full, with a gentle smile and a sense

of spiritual calm.

The Buddha in Mathura art is often depicted with the ushnisha (a topknot symbolizing

wisdom) and the urna (a mark on the forehead symbolizing spiritual insight). These

elements were symbolic of the Buddha's enlightened state.

3. Materials Used: Mathura artists primarily used red sandstone, a material that was

readily available in the region. The red color of the stone gives Mathura sculptures a

distinctive appearance, and the artists used this material to create highly detailed

and intricate works.

4. Yaksha and Yakshini Sculptures: Mathura is also known for its early depictions of

Yakshas (male nature spirits) and Yakshinis (female nature spirits). These figures

were often associated with fertility and were depicted in a highly sensual and

stylized manner. The Yaksha and Yakshini figures are characterized by their full-

bodied, robust forms, and elaborate jewelry.

5. Depictions of Hindu Deities: In addition to Buddhist and Jain sculptures, Mathura

artists also created some of the earliest depictions of Hindu deities such as Vishnu,

Shiva, and Shakti. These sculptures were more dynamic and expressive than the

serene depictions of the Buddha. For example, early depictions of Vishnu show the

god with four arms, holding various symbolic weapons, a feature that would become

standard in later Hindu iconography.

Significance of Mathura Art

The Mathura School of Art is significant because it represents the indigenous Indian artistic

tradition that developed independently of foreign influences. The sculptures from Mathura

are deeply tied to Indian religious and cultural traditions, and they laid the foundation for

much of the later Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art in India. The robust, stylized figures of

Mathura would go on to influence Indian sculpture for centuries.

Comparison Between Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art

While both the Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art developed during the Kushan period,

they represent different cultural and artistic influences.

1. Cultural Influence: Gandhara art was heavily influenced by Greco-Roman styles,

while Mathura art remained largely rooted in indigenous Indian traditions. This

difference is reflected in the treatment of the human form, with Gandhara focusing

on realism and Mathura emphasizing symbolism.

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2. Material Used: Gandhara artists used schist stone, which allowed for fine details and

realistic textures, while Mathura artists used red sandstone, which resulted in a

more stylized and less detailed approach.

3. Depictions of the Buddha: Gandhara depicted the Buddha in a Greco-Roman style,

with wavy hair, a robe, and realistic facial expressions. In contrast, Mathura depicted

the Buddha in a more Indianized form, wearing a dhoti and with a more stylized

body.

4. Themes: While both schools created sculptures of the Buddha, Gandhara art focused

heavily on Buddhist themes, while Mathura also incorporated Hindu and Jain deities

into its artistic repertoire.

5. Narrative Style: Gandhara excelled in narrative reliefs, telling the story of the

Buddha's life in realistic settings, while Mathura was more focused on creating

individual figures of deities, both Hindu and Buddhist.

Conclusion

The Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art are two of the most important traditions in the

history of Indian sculpture. While they developed in different regions and were influenced

by different cultural forces, they both played

8. Describe in detail about the development of education in Ancient India.

Ans: The development of education in ancient India was a significant and well-organized

process, deeply connected with the spiritual, cultural, and intellectual progress of the

society. Education played a critical role in shaping individual character, instilling moral

values, and preparing students for life, with a special focus on spiritual growth and social

responsibilities.

1. The Purpose of Education in Ancient India

The primary goal of education in ancient India was to guide students toward a higher level

of consciousness and self-realization, with a strong emphasis on morality, ethics, and the

understanding of Dharma (righteousness or duty). Education was designed to prepare

students not only for a livelihood but also for a virtuous life.

The emphasis on spiritual knowledge was meant to foster wisdom and understanding of the

world, along with promoting self-discipline and personal development. Education wasn't

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just about acquiring skills for earning a living but was seen as a means to attain Moksha

(liberation or spiritual freedom).

2. Sources of Ancient Indian Education

Education in ancient India was primarily provided by religious institutions such as Gurukuls,

Ashrams, and temples, as well as universities like Nalanda and Takshashila. These places

were not merely centers of learning but also hubs for cultural, philosophical, and religious

discussions.

• Gurukuls and Ashrams: The most common form of education was conducted in

Gurukuls or Ashrams, where a student (Shishya) would live with a teacher (Guru) in

his household. The Guru imparted knowledge, which included both sacred texts and

practical life skills. The relationship between the Guru and the Shishya was sacred,

based on mutual respect, and the teaching was often personalized to the student's

capabilities.

• Temples: Temples also served as centers of education, particularly in the early

periods, where learning focused on religious rituals, scriptures like the Vedas,

Upanishads, and other spiritual texts.

• Buddhist and Jain Institutions: With the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, monasteries

(Viharas) became educational centers, especially for religious and philosophical

studies. Students in these institutions were often prepared to become monks or

nuns.

• Universities: Ancient India boasted of great centers of learning such as Nalanda,

Takshashila (Taxila), Vallabhi, Vikramshila, and Odantapuri. These universities

attracted scholars from far and wide, including countries like China, Korea, Japan,

and Southeast Asia. Education at these institutions included diverse fields such as

logic, medicine, grammar, philosophy, metaphysics, and mathematics.

3. Subjects of Study

The subjects of study were broad and covered both spiritual knowledge and practical life

skills. The curriculum in ancient India was primarily based on:

• Vedas and Upanishads: The most important subjects of learning were the Vedas (Rig

Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda) and Upanishads. These were the

foundation of spiritual knowledge and contained hymns, rituals, philosophy, and

teachings about the cosmos.

• Vedangas: Six auxiliary disciplines called the Vedangas were essential for

understanding the Vedas. These included:

o Shiksha (Phonetics),

o Vyakarana (Grammar),

o Chandas (Meter),

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o Nirukta (Etymology),

o Kalpa (Rituals), and

o Jyotisha (Astronomy).

• Science and Medicine: The science of medicine, Ayurveda, was an integral part of

education. Students were taught the art of healing, medicinal plants, surgeries, and

cures for different diseases. Sushruta and Charaka were notable contributors to this

field.

• Mathematics and Astronomy: India was advanced in mathematics, including

geometry and algebra. Concepts like the decimal system, zero, and the use of

negative numbers were developed here. Astronomers like Aryabhata and

Varahamihira made significant contributions to the understanding of planetary

movements and time calculation.

• Philosophy and Logic: Indian philosophy was a critical area of study, focusing on

different schools of thought such as Vedanta, Nyaya, Mimamsa, and Buddhism.

Logic, rhetoric, and ethics were also essential components.

• Art and Music: Education in the arts, including painting, sculpture, music, and dance,

was given considerable importance, as these were seen as ways to express devotion

and beauty.

4. The Role of Women in Education

In early ancient India, women had access to education, and some women were highly

respected scholars and teachers. Female sages like Gargi and Maitreyi were noted for their

contributions to philosophical debates. Women were educated in subjects like literature,

philosophy, and religious scriptures.

However, over time, the opportunities for women to access formal education declined due

to socio-political changes and the growing influence of conservative cultural norms. By the

later stages of ancient Indian civilization, women were largely excluded from formal

education.

5. The Pedagogical Methods

The methods of teaching in ancient India were oral and involved direct interaction between

the teacher and the student. Key techniques included:

• Oral Transmission: Education was primarily oral, with students memorizing texts,

verses, and philosophical discourses. This method required high levels of

concentration, discipline, and continuous practice.

• Question and Answer: Learning was often conducted through dialogue, with

students encouraged to ask questions and engage in deep discussions. This

interactive method helped students grasp complex philosophical and religious ideas.

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• Observation and Practice: In fields like medicine, students learned through

observation of treatments and hands-on practice under the supervision of

experienced teachers. Similarly, artisans, sculptors, and musicians learned their craft

by working under the guidance of masters.

6. Education and Caste System

The educational opportunities in ancient India were significantly influenced by the caste

system, which divided society into four primary groups: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and

Shudras.

• Brahmins: As the priestly class, Brahmins were traditionally responsible for teaching

and imparting religious knowledge. They had the privilege of learning the Vedas and

other sacred texts.

• Kshatriyas: The warrior class focused on learning military tactics, governance, and

leadership, in addition to some religious and ethical teachings.

• Vaishyas: This merchant class was taught trade, commerce, agriculture, and

business-related subjects.

• Shudras: The lowest class in the hierarchy had limited access to formal education,

and they were primarily taught practical skills relevant to their trades or occupations.

The caste system’s rigidity limited social mobility and restricted access to education for

many, especially those from lower castes.

7. Buddhist and Jain Contributions

Buddhism and Jainism brought significant changes to the educational landscape in ancient

India. Both religions emphasized moral conduct, compassion, non-violence, and the pursuit

of enlightenment through knowledge.

• Buddhist Monastic Education: The establishment of monastic schools (Viharas)

offered a systematic education where students lived with monks and followed strict

ethical and spiritual training. Subjects of study included philosophy, logic, and

meditation.

• Jain Education: Jainism placed a similar emphasis on ethical conduct, non-violence,

and self-discipline. Jain schools focused on religious teachings, but also included logic

and mathematics.

These religions democratized education by providing opportunities for individuals from

different castes and backgrounds to access knowledge.

8. The Golden Age of Indian Education

The Gupta period (circa 4th to 6th centuries CE) is often regarded as the Golden Age of

Indian education. During this time, there was a flourishing of intellectual and cultural

achievements. Universities like Nalanda and Takshashila reached their peak, attracting

students and scholars from across Asia.

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• Nalanda University: Established in the 5th century CE, Nalanda was one of the

world's first residential universities. It housed thousands of students and teachers

who engaged in a wide range of subjects, from Buddhist studies to astronomy and

medicine. The university had a rich library and was known for its rigorous standards

of teaching.

• Takshashila University: One of the earliest universities, Takshashila (Taxila) was

known for its multidisciplinary approach, offering courses in subjects like law,

medicine, military science, and mathematics. It produced great scholars like Panini,

the grammarian, and Kautilya (Chanakya), the political strategist.

9. Decline of Education in Ancient India

The decline of ancient Indian education began with the arrival of foreign invasions and

political instability in the later centuries. The Islamic invasions in the 11th and 12th centuries

led to the destruction of universities and centers of learning, such as Nalanda and

Takshashila. With the advent of Islamic rule, a new system of education emerged, focusing

on Islamic religious teachings, which replaced the traditional Indian systems in many

regions.

Despite this decline, many elements of ancient Indian education survived, especially through

the transmission of knowledge via religious institutions, oral traditions, and small localized

centers of learning.

Conclusion

The development of education in ancient India was deeply intertwined with religious,

philosophical, and social values. It promoted not just practical knowledge but also spiritual

wisdom, ethical conduct, and social responsibility. Despite the limitations imposed by the

caste system, the period saw remarkable intellectual achievements, with institutions like

Nalanda and Takshashila becoming world-renowned centers of learning.

Ancient Indian education laid the foundation for many modern concepts in science,

mathematics, philosophy, and medicine, and its influence continues to be felt in

contemporary Indian society. Although external invasions led to the decline of this system,

its legacy endures, particularly in the spiritual and philosophical traditions of India

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